321energy :: Why Our Food is So Dependent on Oil : = Norman Church

Why Our Food is So Dependent on Oil

by Norman Church
April 2nd, 2005=20

"Concentrate on what cannot lie. The evidence..." -- Gil=20 Grissom

INTRODUCTION

=93Eating Oil=94 was the title of a book which was published in = 1978=20 following the first oil crisis in 1973 (1). The aim of the book = was to=20 investigate the extent to which food supply in industrialised = countries=20 relied on fossil fuels. In the summer of 2000 the degree of = dependence on=20 oil in the UK food system was demonstrated once again when = protestors=20 blockaded oil refineries and fuel distribution depots. The fuel = crises=20 disrupted the distribution of food and industry leaders warned = that their=20 stores would be out of food within days. The lessons of 1973 have = not been=20 heeded.

Today the food system is even more reliant on cheap crude oil.=20 Virtually all of the processes in the modern food system are now = dependent=20 upon this finite resource, which is nearing its depletion = phase.

Moreover, at a time when we should be making massive cuts in = the=20 emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere in order to = reduce the=20 threat posed by climate change, the food system is lengthening its = supply=20 chains and increasing emissions to the point where it is a = significant=20 contributor to global warming.

The organic sector could be leading the development of a = sustainable=20 food system. Direct environmental and ecological impacts of = agriculture=20 =91on the farm=92 are certainly reduced in organic systems. = However, global=20 trade and distribution of organic products fritter away those = benefits and=20 undermine its leadership role.

Not only is the contemporary food system inherently = unsustainable,=20 increasingly, it is damaging the environment.

The systems that produce the world's food supply are heavily = dependent=20 on fossil fuels. Vast amounts of oil and gas are used as raw = materials and=20 energy in the manufacture of fertilisers and pesticides, and as = cheap and=20 readily available energy at all stages of food production: from = planting,=20 irrigation, feeding and harvesting, through to processing, = distribution=20 and packaging. In addition, fossil fuels are essential in the = construction=20 and the repair of equipment and infrastructure needed to = facilitate this=20 industry, including farm machinery, processing facilities, = storage, ships,=20 trucks and roads. The industrial food supply system is one of the = biggest=20 consumers of fossil fuels and one of the greatest producers of = greenhouse=20 gases.

Ironically, the food industry is at serious risk from global = warming=20 caused by these greenhouse gases, through the disruption of the=20 predictable climactic cycles on which agriculture depends. But = global=20 warming can have the more pronounced and immediate effect of = exacerbating=20 existing environmental threats to agriculture, many of which are = caused by=20 industrial agriculture itself. Environmental degradation, water = shortages,=20 salination, soil erosion, pests, disease and desertification all = pose=20 serious threats to our food supply, and are made worse by climate = change.=20 But many of the conventional ways used to overcome these = environmental=20 problems further increase the consumption of finite oil and gas = reserves.=20 Thus the cycle of oil dependence and environmental degradation=20 continues.

Industrial agriculture and the systems of food supply are also=20 responsible for the erosion of communities throughout the world. = This=20 social degradation is compounded by trade rules and policies, by = the=20 profit driven mindset of the industry, and by the lack of = knowledge of the=20 faults of the current systems and the possibilities of = alternatives. But=20 the globalisation and corporate control that seriously threaten = society=20 and the stability of our environment are only possible because = cheap=20 energy is used to replace labour and allows the distance between = producer=20 and consumer to be extended.

However, this is set to change. Oil output is expected to peak = in the=20 next few years and steadily decline thereafter. We have a very = poor=20 understanding of how the extreme fluctuations in the availability = and cost=20 of both oil and natural gas will affect the global food supply = systems,=20 and how they will be able to adapt to the decreasing availability = of=20 energy. In the near future, environmental threats will combine = with energy=20 scarcity to cause significant food shortages and sharp increases = in prices=20 - at the very least. We are about to enter an era where we will = have to=20 once again feed the world with limited use of fossil fuels. But do = we have=20 enough time, knowledge, money, energy and political power to make = this=20 massive transformation to our food systems when they are already=20 threatened by significant environmental stresses and increasing = corporate=20 control?

The modern, commercial agricultural miracle that feeds all of = us, and=20 much of the rest of the world, is completely dependent on the = flow,=20 processing and distribution of oil, and technology is critical to=20 maintaining that flow.

Oil refined for gasoline and diesel is critical to run the = tractors,=20 combines and other farm vehicles and equipment that plant, spray = the=20 herbicides and pesticides, and harvest/transport food and seed = Food=20 processors rely on the just-in-time (gasoline-based) delivery of = fresh or=20 refrigerated food Food processors rely on the production and = delivery of=20 food additives, including vitamins and minerals, emulsifiers,=20 preservatives, colouring agents, etc. Many are oil-based. Delivery = is=20 oil-based Food processors rely on the production and delivery of = boxes,=20 metal cans, printed paper labels, plastic trays, cellophane for=20 microwave/convenience foods, glass jars, plastic and metal lids = with=20 sealing compounds. Many of these are essentially oil-based = Delivery of=20 finished food products to distribution centres in refrigerated = trucks.=20 Oil-based, daily, just-in-time shipment of food to grocery stores, = restaurants, hospitals, schools, etc., all oil-based; customer = drives to=20 grocery store to shop for supplies, often several times a week=20

ENERGY, TRANSPORT AND THE FOOD SYSTEM

Our food system is energy inefficient...

One indicator of the unsustainability of the contemporary food = system=20 is the ratio of energy outputs - the energy content of a food = product=20 (calories) - to the energy inputs.

The latter is all the energy consumed in producing, processing, = packaging and distributing that product. The energy ratio (energy=20 out/energy in) in agriculture has decreased from being close to = 100 for=20 traditional pre-industrial societies to less than 1 in most cases = in the=20 present food system, as energy inputs, mainly in the form of = fossil fuels,=20 have gradually increased.

However, transport energy consumption is also significant, and = if=20 included in these ratios would mean that the ratio would decrease = further.=20 For example, when iceberg lettuce is imported to the UK from the = USA by=20 plane, the energy ratio is only 0.00786. In other words 127 = calories of=20 energy (aviation fuel) are needed to transport 1 calorie of = lettuce across=20 the Atlantic. If the energy consumed during lettuce cultivation,=20 packaging, refrigeration, distribution in the UK and shopping by = car was=20 included, the energy needed would be even higher. Similarly, 97 = calories=20 of transport energy are needed to import 1 calorie of asparagus by = plane=20 from Chile, and 66 units of energy are consumed when flying 1 unit = of=20 carrot energy from South Africa.

Just how energy inefficient the food system is can be seen in = the crazy=20 case of the Swedish tomato ketchup. Researchers at the Swedish = Institute=20 for Food and Biotechnology analysed the production of tomato = ketchup (2).=20 The study considered the production of inputs to agriculture, = tomato=20 cultivation and conversion to tomato paste (in Italy), the = processing and=20 packaging of the paste and other ingredients into tomato ketchup = in Sweden=20 and the retail and storage of the final product. All this involved = more=20 than 52 transport and process stages.

The aseptic bags used to package the tomato paste were produced = in the=20 Netherlands and transported to Italy to be filled, placed in steel = barrels, and then moved to Sweden. The five layered, red bottles = were=20 either produced in the UK or Sweden with materials form Japan, = Italy,=20 Belgium, the USA and Denmark. The polypropylene (PP) screw-cap of = the=20 bottle and plug, made from low density polyethylene (LDPE), was = produced=20 in Denmark and transported to Sweden. Additionally, LDPE = shrink-film and=20 corrugated cardboard were used to distribute the final product. = Labels,=20 glue and ink were not included in the analysis.

This example demonstrates the extent to which the food system = is now=20 dependent on national and international freight transport. = However, there=20 are many other steps involved in the production of this everyday = product.=20 These include the transportation associated with: the production = and=20 supply of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium fertilisers; = pesticides;=20 processing equipment; and farm machinery. It is likely that other=20 ingredients such as sugar, vinegar, spices and salt were also = imported.=20 Most of the processes listed above will also depend on derivatives = of=20 fossil fuels. This product is also likely to be purchased in a = shopping=20 trip by car.

...is dependent on oil...

One study has estimated that UK imports of food products and = animal=20 feed involved transportation by sea, air and road amounting to = over 83=20 billion tonne-kilometres (3). This required 1.6 billion litres of = fuel=20 and, based on a conservative figure of 50 grams of carbon dioxide = per=20 tonne-kilometre resulted in 4.1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide = emissions=20 (4). Within the UK, the amount of food transported increased by = 16% and=20 the distances travelled by 50% between 1978 and 1999.

It has been estimated that the CO2 emissions attributable to = producing,=20 processing, packaging and distributing the food consumed by a = family of=20 four is about 8 tonnes a year (5)

..and is unnecessarily contributing to carbon = emissions.

It is not that this transportation is critical or necessary. In = many=20 cases countries import and export similar quantities of the same = food=20 products (6). A recent report has highlighted the instances in = which=20 countries import and export large quantities of particular = foodstuffs (6).=20 For example, in 1997, 126 million litres of liquid milk was = imported into=20 the UK and, at the same time, 270 million litres of milk was = exported from=20 the UK. 23,000 tonnes of milk powder was imported into the UK and = 153,000=20 tonnes exported (7). UK milk imports have doubled over the last 20 = years,=20 but there has been a four-fold increase in UK milk exports over = the last=20 30 years (8).

Britain imports 61,400 tonnes of poultry meat a year from the=20 Netherlands and exports 33,100 tonnes to the Netherlands. We = import=20 240,000 tonnes of pork and 125,000 tonnes of lamb while exporting = 195,000=20 tonnes of pork and 102,000 tonnes of lamb (6).

This system is unsustainable, illogical, and bizarre and can = only exist=20 as long as inexpensive fossil fuels are available and we do not = take=20 significant action to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.

GLOBAL WARMING AND FINITE OIL

The threat of global warming and the need to reduce carbon=20 emissions

The nearness of the depletion stage of oil supplies

Discovery of oil and gas peaked in the 1960s. Production is set = to peak=20 too, with five Middle Eastern countries regaining control of world = supply=20 (9). Almost two-thirds of the world's total reserves of crude oil = are=20 located in the Middle East, notably in Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq = (10).=20 An assessment of future world oil supply and its depletion pattern = shows=20 that between 1980 and 1998 there was an 11.2 per cent increase in = world=20 crude oil production, from 59.6 to 66.9 million barrels of oil per = day=20 (10). Current world production rates are about 25 Gb (billion = barrels) per=20 year. A simple calculation shows that if consumption levels remain = constant, world crude oil reserves, at approximately 1 trillion = barrels,=20 could be exhausted around 2040 (11).

The oil crises of the 1970s when the Organisation of Petroleum=20 Exporting Countries (OPEC) states reined in their production have = passed=20 into folk memory. However, they were accompanied by massive = disruption and=20 global economic recession. The same happened in 1980 and 1991 = (12).

Colin J. Campbell, a pre-eminent oil industry analyst, believes = that=20 future crises will be much worse. =93The oil shocks of the 1970s = were=20 short-lived because there were then plenty of new oil and gas = finds to=20 bring on stream. This time there are virtually no new prolific = basins to=20 yield a crop of giant fields sufficient to have a global impact. = The=20 growing Middle East control of the market is likely to lead to a = radical=20 and permanent increase in the price of oil, before physical = shortages=20 begin to appear within the first decade of the 21st century. The = world's=20 economy has been driven by an abundant supply of cheap oil-based = energy=20 for the best part of this century. The coming oil crisis will = accordingly=20 be an economic and political discontinuity of historic = proportions, as the=20 world adjusts to a new energy environment=94 (9).

The three main purposes for which oil is used worldwide are = food,=20 transport and heating. In the near future the competition for oil = for=20 these three activities will be raw and real. An energy famine is = likely to=20 affect poorer countries first, when increases in the cost of = paraffin,=20 used for cooking, place it beyond their reach. Following the peak = in=20 production, food supplies all over the world will begin to be = disrupted,=20 not only because of price increases but because the oil will no = longer be=20 there.

IS ORGANIC ANY DIFFERENT?

The organic system is more energy efficient to the farm = gate...

One of the benefits of organic production is that energy = consumption=20 and, therefore, fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas = emissions, are=20 less than that in conventional systems.

The energy used in food production is separated into direct and = indirect inputs. Indirect inputs include the manufacture and = supply of=20 pesticides, feedstuffs and fertilisers while direct energy inputs = are=20 those on the farm, such as machinery. One measure of the energy = efficiency=20 of food production that allows a comparison between different = farming=20 practices is the energy consumed per unit output, often expressed = as the=20 energy consumed per tonne of food produced (MJ/tonne) or the = energy=20 consumed per kilogram of food (MJ/kg).

A study comparing organic and conventional livestock, dairy, = vegetable=20 and arable systems in the UK found that, with average yields, the = energy=20 saving with organic production ranged from 0.14 MJ/kg to 1.79 = MJ/kg, with=20 the average being 0.68 MJ/kg or 42 per cent (13). The improved = energy=20 efficiency in organic systems is largely due to lower (or zero) = fertiliser=20 and pesticide inputs, which account for half of the energy input = in=20 conventional potato and winter wheat production and up to 80 per = cent of=20 the energy consumed in some vegetable crops.

In conventional upland livestock production, the largest energy = input=20 is again indirect in the form of concentrated and cereal feeds. = When=20 reared organically, a greater proportion of the feed for dairy = cattle,=20 beef and hill sheep is derived from grass. In the case of milk = production,=20 it has been found that organic systems are almost five times more = energy=20 efficient on a per animal basis and three and a half times more = energy=20 efficient in terms of unit output (the energy required to produce = a litre=20 of milk) (13).

...but not when it goes global.

So far so good - but once passed the farm-gate, things begin to = go=20 wrong. Britain imports over three-quarters of its organic produce, = and=20 despite consumer demand, only two per cent of its land is = organically=20 farmed (14). As the market has grown it has been met by = imports.

A study looking at the energy consumption and carbon dioxide = emissions=20 when importing organic food products to the UK by plane (15) found = that=20 carbon dioxide emissions range from 1.6 kilograms to 10.7 = kilograms. Air=20 transport of food is the worst environmental option but road = transport,=20 especially unnecessary journeys, is also bad. For example 5kg of = Sicilian=20 potatoes travelling 2448 miles emits 771 grams of carbon = dioxide.

The problem is that, overall, human beings have developed a = tendency to=20 deal with problems on an ad hoc basis - i.e., to deal with = 'problems of=20 the moment'. This does not foster an attitude of seeing a problem = embedded=20 in the context of another problem.

Globalisation makes it impossible for modern societies to = collapse in=20 isolation. Any society in turmoil today, no matter how remote, can = cause=20 problems for prosperous societies on other continents, and is also = subject=20 to their influence (whether helpful or destabilising).

For the first time in history, we face the risk of a global = decline.=20

Shocks to the system

As already stated, the three main purposes for which oil is = used=20 worldwide are food, transport and heating. Agriculture is almost = entirely=20 dependent on reliable supplies of oil for cultivation and for = pumping=20 water, and on gas for its fertilisers; in addition, for every = calorie of=20 energy used by agriculture itself, five more are used for = processing,=20 storage and distribution.

Since farming and the food industry are not famous for spending = money=20 unnecessarily, there must be a presumption that there is very = little=20 short-term 'slack' which would allow its demand for energy to be = reduced=20 at short notice without disruptions in food prices. In the case of = transport and heating fuel, there is more scope for saving energy = at short=20 notice; cutting leisure journeys, for instance, wearing extra = pullovers=20 and, in the slightly longer term, driving smaller cars have a role = to play=20 while, in the longer term, there is a totally different low-energy = paradigm waiting to be developed. But it is the short term that = has to be=20 survived first and, in that short term, the competition for oil = for food,=20 transport and heating will be real and raw.

Through its dependence on oil, contemporary farming is exposed = to the=20 whole question of the sustainability of our use of fossil fuels. = It took=20 500 million years to produce these hydrocarbon deposits and we are = using=20 them at a rate in excess of 1 million times their natural rate of=20 production. On the time scale of centuries, we certainly cannot = expect to=20 continue using oil as freely and ubiquitously as we do today. = Something is=20 going to have to change.

The same applies more widely to every natural resource on which = industrial civilisation relies. Furthermore, one might think that = there is=20 a compounded problem. Not only are there more people consuming = these=20 resources, but their per capita consumption also increases in line = with=20 the elaboration of technology. We seem to be facing a problem of=20 diminishing returns, indeed of running out of the vital raw = materials=20 needed to support our economic growth.

Almost every current human endeavour from transportation, to=20 manufacturing, to electricity to plastics, and especially food = production=20 is inextricably intertwined with oil and natural gas=20 supplies.

Commercial food production is oil powered. Most = pesticides=20 are petroleum- (oil) based, and all commercial fertilisers are=20 ammonia-based. Ammonia is produced from natural gas Oil based = agriculture=20 is primarily responsible for the world's population exploding from = 1=20 billion at the middle of the 19th century to 6.3 billion at the = turn of=20 the 21st Oil allowed for farming implements such as tractors, food = storage=20 systems such as refrigerators, and food transport systems such as = trucks=20 As oil production went up, so did food production. As food = production went=20 up, so did the population. As the population went up, the demand = for food=20 went up, which increased the demand for oil. Here we go round the = Mulberry=20 bush Oil is also largely responsible for the advances in medicine = that=20 have been made in the last 150 years. Oil allowed for the mass = production=20 of pharmaceutical drugs, and the development of health care = infrastructure=20 such as hospitals, ambulances, roads, etc.=20

We are now at a point where the demand for food/oil continues = to rise,=20 while our ability to produce it in an affordable fashion is about = to=20 drop.

Within a few years of Peak Oil occurring, the price of food = will=20 skyrocket because the cost of fertiliser will soar. The cost of = storing=20 (electricity) and transporting (gasoline) the food that is = produced will=20 also soar.

Oil is required for a lot more than just food, medicine, and=20 transportation. It is also required for nearly every consumer = item, water=20 supply pumping, sewage disposal, garbage disposal, street/park=20 maintenance, hospitals and health systems, police, fire services = and=20 national defence.

Additionally, as you are probably already aware, wars are often = fought=20 over oil.

Bottom line?

If we think we are food secure here in the UK and other = industrialised=20 countries simply because we have gas in the car, frankly, we are=20 delusional. Despite the appearance of an endless bounty of food, = it is a=20 fragile bounty, dependent upon the integrity of the global oil = production,=20 refining and delivery system. That system is entirely dependent on = the=20 thread of technology. Modern, technology-based agriculture = produces both=20 food, and seeds for next year=92s food, on a just-in-time basis. = There are=20 precious little reserves of either food or seeds to sustain any = protracted=20 interruption.

Technology and the incredibly rich tapestry it has made = possible has=20 created a false sense of security for so many of us. The thread is = flawed;=20 the tapestry is now fragile; famines are possible. We must take = that=20 seriously. . .

Our food supply, and our economic survival as a whole, depends = on the=20 steady availability of reasonably priced oil. Is oil our Achilles=20 heel?

This means our food supply is:

Vulnerable:

The oil supplies that fuel the food system could be exhausted = by 2040=20 (19). In many regions oil production has peaked and most reserves = lie in=20 the Middle East. Food security is also threatened: for example, = even if=20 all UK fruit production was consumed in the UK, of every 100 fruit = products purchased, only 5 will now have been grown in the = UK.

Inefficient:

For every calorie of carrot, flown in from South Africa, we use = 66=20 calories of fuel. The huge fuel use in the food system means more = carbon=20 dioxide emissions, which means climate change, which means more = damage to=20 food supplies, as well as other major health and social = problems.

Unsustainable:

Even organic supplies are becoming hugely damaging as imports = fill our=20 shelves (17). One shopping basket of 26 imported organic products = could=20 have travelled 241,000 kilometres and released as much CO2 into = the=20 atmosphere as an average four bedroom household does through = cooking meals=20 over eight months (18).

Other problems highlighted include loss of nutrients in food, = increased=20 incidence and spread of diseases such as Foot & Mouth and = other major=20 animal welfare problems. Poor countries producing food for distant = markets=20 are not necessarily seeing benefits through increased and often = intensive=20 production for export. The report reveals how such trends could be = reversed through industry, government and public action.

In other words, we won=92t have to run completely out of oil to = be rudely=20 awakened. The panic starts once the world needs more oil than it = gets.

To understand why, you=92ve got to fathom how totally addicted = to oil we=20 have become. We know that petroleum is drawn from deep wells and = distilled=20 into gasoline, jet fuel, and countless other products that form = the=20 lifeblood of industry and the adrenaline of military might. It=92s = less well=20 known that the world=92s food is now nourished by oil; petroleum = and natural=20 gas are crucial at every step of modern agriculture, from forming=20 fertiliser to shipping crops. The implications are grim. For = millions, the=20 difference between an energy famine and a biblical famine could = well be=20 academic.

Independent policy analyst David Fleming writes in the British = magazine=20 Prospect (Nov. 2000),

With a global oil crisis looming like the Doomsday Rock, why do = so few=20 political leaders seem to care? Many experts refuse to take the = problem=20 seriously because it "falls outside the mind-set of market = economics."=20 Thanks to the triumph of global capitalism, the free-market model = now=20 reigns almost everywhere. The trouble is, its principles "tend to = break=20 down when applied to natural resources like oil." The result is = both=20 potentially catastrophic and all too human. Our high priests=97the = market=20 economists=97are blind to a reality that in their cosmology cannot = exist.

Fleming offers several examples of this broken logic at work. = Many=20 cling to a belief that higher oil prices will spur more oil = discoveries,=20 but they ignore what earth scientists have been saying for years: = there=20 aren=92t any more big discoveries to make. Most of the oil = reserves we tap=20 today were actually identified by the mid-1960s. There=92s a lot = of oil left=20 in the ground =97 perhaps more than half of the total recoverable = supply.=20 Fleming says that that is not the issue. The real concern is the = point=20 beyond which demand cannot be met. And with demand destined to = grow by as=20 much as 3 percent a year, the missing barrels will add up quickly. = Once=20 the pain becomes real, the Darwinian impulse kicks in and the = orderly=20 market gives way to chaos.

Some insist that industrial societies are growing less = dependent on=20 oil. Fleming says they=92re kidding themselves. They=92re talking = about oil=20 use as a percentage of total energy use, not the actual amount of = oil=20 burned. Measured by the barrel, we=92re burning more and more. In = Britain,=20 for instance, transportation needs have doubled in volume since = 1973 and=20 still rely almost entirely on oil. Transportation is the weak link = in any=20 modern economy; choke off the oil and a country quickly = seizes.

This wouldn=92t matter much, Fleming laments, "If the world had = spent the=20 last 25 years urgently preparing alternative energies, = conservation=20 technologies, and patterns of land use with a much lower = dependence on=20 transport." (He figures 25 years to be the time it will take a = country=20 like Britain to break its habit.) Instead, "the long-expected = shock finds=20 us unprepared."

SOME UK FOOD STATISTICS

UK food supply chain

UK food retailing market was worth =A3103,800 million in = 2001

Food manufacturing is the single-largest manufacturing industry = in the=20 UK

Food supply chain employs 12.5% of the entire workforce in the = UK

Food supply chain contributes 8% to the UK economy

Food and drink accounts for 21% of weekly household = expenditure

Food supply chain and unsustainability

Food supply chain is the largest energy user in the UK

Food production and distribution contributes up to 22% of the = UK=92s=20 total greenhouse emissions

Food travels further than any other product - 129 km compared = to the=20 average product travel of 94 km

Wages in the food industry are notoriously low compared to = other=20 sectors

Nearly 30% of household waste is food waste

CONCLUSIONS

Proximity and localisation of food system would be = beneficial.

The contemporary food system is inherently = unsustainable.

Indicators of social, environmental and economic performance, = such as=20 food security, greenhouse gas emissions, food miles, farm income = and=20 biodiversity highlight this fact. This process could be reversed = by=20 re-establishing local and regional food supply systems and = substituting=20 =91near for far=92 in production and distribution systems. This = would reduce=20 both the demand for, and the environmental burdens associated = with,=20 transportation.

The proximity principle is a straightforward concept in Eating = Oil,=20 where production processes are located as near to the consumer as=20 possible. When applied to food supply, local food systems in the = form of=20 home-delivery box schemes, farmers=92 markets and shops selling = local=20 produce would replace imported and centrally distributed = foodstuffs.

Taking UK food supply and trade at present, there is great = potential to=20 apply the proximity principle, in the form of import substitution. = Apart=20 from products such as bananas, coffee and tea, many of the = foodstuffs that=20 are imported at present could be produced in Britain. Many meat = products,=20 cereals, dairy products and cooking oils are - or could be - = available=20 here throughout the year. So could fruit and vegetables, perhaps = the most=20 seasonal of food groups, through a combination of cultivating = different=20 varieties and traditional and modern storage and preservation=20 techniques.

The land currently used to produce food that is exported could = be used=20 to increase our self-sufficiency.

There is growing evidence of environmental benefits of local = sourcing=20 of food in terms of reduced transport-related environmental = impact. In the=20 case of organic produce, a survey of retailers compared local and = global=20 sourcing of produce marketed in different outlets between June and = August=20 2001. Products were chosen that were available in the UK during = these=20 months but are at present imported by the multiple retailers. = These=20 included spring onions imported by plane from Mexico, potatoes = imported by=20 road from Sicily, onions imported by ship from New Zealand. It was = found=20 that local sourcing through a farmers market, for example, would = therefore=20 reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with distribution = by a=20 factor of 650 in the case of a farmers=92 market and more for box = schemes=20 and farm shop sales (16).

The value of UK food, feed and drink imports in 1999 was over = =A317=20 billion. It is clear that a reduction in food imports through = import=20 substitution would not only be of benefit to the UK economy as a = whole but=20 could also be a major driver in rural regeneration as farm incomes = would=20 increase substantially. Local food systems also have great = potential to=20 reduce the damaging environmental effects of the current food = supply=20 system.

A sustainable food system cannot rely, almost completely, on = one finite=20 energy source; an energy source which causes enormous levels of = pollution=20 during its production, distribution and use. Although food = supplies in=20 wealthy countries such as the UK appear to be secure and choice, = in terms=20 of thousands of food products being available at supermarkets, = seems=20 limitless, this is an illusion.

The vulnerability of our food system to sudden changes was = demonstrated=20 during the fuel crisis in 2001. A sharp increase in the price of = oil or a=20 reduction in oil supplies could present a far more serious threat = to food=20 security and is likely to as oil enters its depletion phase. Food=20 production and distribution, as they are organised today, would = not be=20 able to function. Moreover, the alternatives, in the form of = sustainable=20 agriculture and local food supplies, which minimise the use of = crude oil,=20 are currently unable to respond to increased demand due to low = investment=20 and capacity.

The food system is now a significant contributor to climate = change.=20 Reducing the carbon dioxide emissions from food production, = processing and=20 distribution by minimising the distance between producer and = consumer=20 should be a critical part of any strategy to mitigate global = warming.

There are many benefits to organic farming, including reduced = fossil=20 fuel energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. However, = these are=20 often overshadowed by the environmental damage of long distance = transport.=20 Organic products that are transported long distances, particularly = when=20 distribution is by plane, are almost as damaging as their = conventional air=20 freighted counterparts. Highly processed and packaged organic = foodstuffs=20 have an added adverse environmental impact.

The priority must be the development of local and regional food = systems, preferably organically based, in which a large percentage = of=20 demand is met within the locality or region. This approach, = combined with=20 fair trade, will ensure secure food supplies, minimise fossil fuel = consumption and reduce the vulnerability associated with a = dependency on=20 food exports (as well as imports). Localising the food system will = require=20 significant diversification, research, investment and support that = have,=20 so far, not been forthcoming. But it is achievable and we have = little=20 choice.

Compiled by Norman Church

Norman@noidea.me.uk

Norman Church
April 2nd, 2005

REFERENCES

1 Green, B. M., 1978. Eating Oil - Energy Use in Food = Production.=20 Westview Press, Boulder, CO. 1978.

2 Andersson, K. Ohlsson, P and Olsson, P. 1996, Life Cycle = Assessment=20 of Tomato Ketchup. The Swedish Institute for Food and = Biotechnology,=20 Gothenburg.

3 Cowell, S., and R. Clift., 1996. Farming for the future: an=20 environmental perspective. Paper presented at the Royal = Agricultural=20 Society of the Commonwealth, July 1996,CES, University of = Surrey.

4. Data for shipping and airfreight from Guidelines for company = reporting on greenhouse gas emissions. Department of the = Environment,=20 Transport and the Regions: London, March 2001. Data for trucks is = based on=20 Whitelegg, J., 1993. Transport for a sustainable future: the case = for=20 Europe. Belhaven Press, London; and Gover, M. P., 1994. UK petrol = and=20 diesel demand: energy and emission effects of a switch to diesel. = Report=20 for the Department of Trade and Industry, HMSO, London.

5. BRE, 1998. Building a sustainable future. General = information report=20 53, energy efficiency best practice programme, Building Research=20 Establishment, Garston, UK.

6. Caroline Lucas, 2001. Stopping the Great Food Swap - = Relocalising=20 Europe=92s food supply. Green Party, 2001.

7. 21 Lobstein, T, and Hoskins, R, The Perfect Pinta. Food = Facts No. 2.=20 The SAFE Alliance, 1998.

8. FAO, 2001. Food Balance Database. 2001. Food and Agriculture = Organisation, Rome at http://www.fao.org/

9 Colin J. Campbell, 1997. The Coming Oil Crisis. Multi- = Science=20 Publishing Co. Ltd

10 Green Party USA, 2001. World crude oil reserves =96 = Statistical=20 information. Based on data from the Oil and Gas Journal and the = Energy=20 Information Agency. At http://= environment.about.com/library/weekly/aa092700.htm

11 Medea: European Agency for International Information, 2001. = Oil=20 Reserves. at - http://www.medea.be/en/ 11 = David=20 Fleming, 2001. The Great Oil Denial. Submission to the UK Energy = Review.=20 At

http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/innovation/2001/energy/submiss= ions/Fleming

12 EIA, 2001. World Oil Market and Oil Price Chronologies: 1970 = =96 2000.=20 Department of Energy=92s Office of the Strategic Petroleum = Reserve, Analysis=20 Division, Energy Information Administration, Department of the=20 Environment, USA, at http://www.eia.doe.gov/

13 Energy use in organic farming systems ADAS Consulting for = MAFF,=20 Project OF0182, DEFRA, London, 2001.

14 Natasha Walter, 2001. When will we get the revolution. The=20 Independent 19th July 2001.

15 Based on data on sourcing from UKROFS and a survey of = supermarket=20 stores during June =96 August 2001; distance tables for air miles = at www.indo.com/cgi-bin/dist = and=20 the environmental impact of airfreight in Guidelines for company = reporting=20 on greenhouse gas emissions. Department of the Environment, = Transport and=20 the Regions, London, March 2001.

16 Data for shipping and airfreight from Guidelines for company = reporting on greenhouse gas emissions. Department of the = Environment,=20 Transport and the Regions: London, March 2001. Data for trucks is = based on=20 Whitelegg, J., 1993. Transport for a sustainable future: the case = for=20 Europe. Belhaven Press, London; and Gover, M. P., 1994. UK petrol = and=20 diesel demand: energy and emission effects of a switch to diesel. = Report=20 for the Department of Trade and Industry, HMSO, London. Data for = cars from=20 the Vehicle Certification Agency at http://www.vca.gov.uk/; = Whitelegg, J.,=20 1993. Transport for a sustainable future: the case for Europe. = Belhaven=20 Press, London; and Gover, M. P., 1994. UK petrol and diesel = demand: energy=20 and emission effects of a switch to diesel. Report for the = Department of=20 Trade and Industry, HMSO, London.

17 RCEP, 2000. Energy =96 The Changing Climate. The Royal = Commission on=20 Environmental Pollution, Twenty-second Report, June 2000, HMSO,=20 London.

18 DETR, 2001. The draft UK climate change programme. DETR, = 2001. HMSO,=20 London.

19 USDOE, 2001.World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the = Consumption and=20 Flaring of Fossil Fuels, 1980-1999. US Department of the = Environment at http:= //www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tableh1.xls


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